Sutras of Pantanjali: The Yamas
[Note: The translations/renderings below are from B.K.S Iyengar’s Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and Edwin F. Bryant The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.)
The first chapter, or pada, of the sutras of Patanjali is named “Samadhi,” and is by legend directed to those who can reach enlightenment though study and meditation. For those who cannot, chapter II is presented — Sadhana, or “Practice.”
The yamas
The yamas are the first limb of Patanjali’s classic eight-limbs of yoga, but they are first enumerated in the second chapter (Sadhana Pada: “Practice”). They appear beginning at II.29 after a series of sutras on the intensity of practice and its obstacles. This is the first enumeration of the eight limbs of classic yoga, sometimes called raja yoga. The eight-limbed path is elaborated in the remainder of Sadhana Pada and in the first three sutras of Chapter Three, Vibhuti Pada.
[Note: the sutras immediately preceding II.29 are important for their presentation of the process of cleansing consciousness, body, and spirit.]
II.28 By dedicated practice of the various aspects of yoga impurities are destroyed: the crown of wisdom radiates in glory. (BKS)
Mr. Iyengar says at this point (p. 134) that: “Yoga can cure or lessen our physical, mental, moral and spiritual sufferings. Perfection and success are certain only if one practices with love and whole-hearted dedication.” In his Light on Pranayama he precedes this discussion with a diagram of the sheaths of the body (koshas) that are to be penetrated and cleansed through yoga.
Bryant’s translation:
II.28 Upon the destruction of impurities as a result of the practice of yoga, the lamp of knowledge arises. This culminates in discriminative discernment. (EFB)
Bryant’s rendering emphasizes the importance of “discriminative knowledge.” This is described earlier as the ability to obtain clarity and by dispelling avidya (ignorance). This process is described at the beginning of Chapter II, Sadhana Pada (“Practice”), with the enumeration of the kleshas, or afflictions, that cause fluctuations of the mind (see II.3 ff). Paramount of these afflictions is ignorance (avidya) which Is defined as inability to discriminate the impermanent from the impermanent, the impure from the pure, the pleasurable from the painful, and the self from the non-self.
These are the elaborations of the steps required for the yogi to achieve “Yoga citta vritta nirodaha,” the goal of yoga to dispel or attenuate the fluctuations of the mind as spelled out in the second most of Patanjali’s sutras (Sutra 1.2).
What the first 28 sutras elaborate is a classic exposition of spiritual principles:
First is the statement of the goal: to reach samadhi, the stage of purification of the senses and consciousness.
The second is the statement that their are causes that can be understood.
The third is a description of the nature of obstacles or afflictions (klesha) that scatter our consciousness and produce fluctuations of the mind. Curbing the afflictions is the means described in the classic sutra: “yoga citta vrtta nirodaha” — yoga stills the fluctuations of the mind. The afflictions are enumerated — avidya (ignorance), asmita (ego), raga (attachment), dwesha (aversion) and abhinavesa (clinging to life). Through yoga their power over the yoga aspirant is to “attenuated” or eliminated.
The fourth major element is the gradual laying out of the path, beginning with assurance in sutra II.28 that yoga can lead to the “lamp of knowledge” and the “discriminative judgment” that leads to samadhi. [See Endnote below on the similarity to the classic formula in the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism.]
This prepares the way for the examination of the eight limbs of yoga, beginning with sutra II.29 — the yamas.
II.29. Yama niyama asana pranayama pratyahara dharana dhyana samadhayah astau angani
Moral injunctions (yama), fixed observances (niyama), posture (asana), regulation of breath (pranayama), internalization of the senses toward their source (pratyahara), concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana) and absorption of consciousness in the self (samadhi), are the right constituents of yoga. (BKS)
Bryant renders II.29 as “The eight limbs are: abstentions, observances, posture, breath control, disengagement of the senses, concentration, meditation, and absorption.”
The yamas are enumerated in:
II.30 ahimsa satya asteya brahmacarya aparigrahah yamah
Non-violence, truth, abstention from stealing, continence, and the absence of reed for possessions beyond one’s need are the five pillars of yama. (BKS)
Iyengar: “These rules and restraints are clearly laid for us to live in society whist remaining a yoga practitioner.” (p. 135) Here he emphasizes the absolute nature of the yamas – they are not just suggestions or aspirations for the yogi, they are binding moral imperatives.
II.31 Yamas are the great, mighty, universal vows, unconditioned by place, time and class
“they should be followed unconditionally by everyone, and by students of yoga in particular, irrespective of origin and situation, …They form the framework of rules on which society is based …
I believe that this universal approach should be applied to all the other component stages of yoga, without distinction of time, place or circumstances, to lay down the precepts of a universal culture.” (BKS, p 136)
Bryant agrees that the yamas are meant to be an absolute guide for yogis. Regardless of one’s circumstances, they are binding.
On the surface, this is difficult to square with the Bhagavad Gita in which the karma yogi such as Arjuna must do his duty – in this case, to fight and, if necessary, kill his opposition which is composed mainly of a rival branch of his extended kinship. In the classical Indian caste system, the Kshatriya, or warrior class, is expected to fight. This would imply that only the class of scholars and priests (brahmins) were eligible to be “real” yogis, while the dirty work of society is left to others. The Bhagavad Gita notwithstanding, modern interpretations often say that the yogic path is open to all; however, to reach full realization as yogis warriors and others must indeed adhere to the yamas.
A bit of comparison with the precepts or vows taken by Buddhists may help. The origin of the precepts is in the same general period as the sutras of Patanjali, and they are linked to the same broader moral and spiritual system. In Buddhism, the precepts are often given as non-violence, honesty/truthfulness, non-stealing, avoidance of destructive sexual behavior, and avoidance of intoxicants. These are, of course, ahimsa, satya, asteya, and bramacharya. The fifth -avoidance of intoxicants — is not a specific precept in the yamas of yoga as it is in Buddhism.
[Note: the “Five Mindfulness Trainings” in the tradition of Thich Nhat Hanh and greatly elaborated on the classic Buddhist precepts. They carry the same sentiment but are quite modern in their references to specific temptations and aspirations.]
Buddhism acknowledge a different meaning of brahmacharya for monastics and for lay persons. The latter are known in the yoga texts as “householders.” They have families and are not sexually abstinent. The modern rendering of brahmacharya is thus not always “chastity” (except for monks and nuns, bhikkus), but responsibility and non-destructiveness. Bhikkus in the buddhist tradition have accepted brachmacharya literally, living a life roughly comparable to what the classic yogis call sannyasi – freedom and detachment from family and physical attachments. Being sannyasi is a high state of aspiration to being a true yogi and involves full dedication to the path.
If we parse these distinctions a bit, we could argue that many “yogis” are “householders” in the old sense, and correspond to non-celibate Buddhists who nevertheless aspire to avoid sexual behavior that is destructive to self and others. Many modern yoga practitioners find the reference to “celibacy” and “chastity” to be archaic and may reject the notion altogether. However, it seems a more attainable aspiration when viewed as the status of “householder” or, if not married, a responsible, non-harming person in sexual relations.
From this point in the Sutras there is little further enumeration or discussion of the yamas. Yet, they have the status of a universal moral system to guide the yogi. Importance as they are, Mr. Iyengar was a very practical guru and did not teach that absolute to the yamas was a precondition to practice. It is often approached as an aspiration or goal to be reached through practice. This is consistent with the basic goal of hatha yoga to reach the inner being (including the spiritual and moral sense) through practice.
As a practical matter, Western yoga studios would be practically empty if one had to adhere fully to the yamas before getting to the mat.
Though Western yogis, especially young people, sometimes see bramacharya as an archaic prescription, ahimsa (non-violence) is perhaps more contentious. Strictly speaking it would mean non-violence to animals, and thus a vegetarian diet. It would also mean, perhaps, no police and no soldiers and no wars. Practitioners often seize on these factors of modern life as evidence that the yamas are an impossible guide to behavior. Here, as ever, Mr. Iyengar has often said that you need not force yourself to be a vegetarian — but that you will likely move in that direction as a natural result of your practice. Similarly, he has taught yoga to soldiers in India, acknowledging that warriors may still have a place, but that they, too, can benefit from yoga. In modern life, the path of karma yoga as described in the Bhagavad Gita often seems more attainable than the renunciate path of the bramachari or sannyasi.
Note on the Chronology of the Sutras of Patanjali
This articulation of spiritual principles is part of an ancient spiritual tradition that included prior centuries of the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other documents of ritual, spirituality and enlightenment. As a very rough chronology, it may be helpful to remember (that Classic Yoga and Buddhism were both articulated in the five centuries B.C.E., and thus preceded the monotheistic religions of Christianity (by some five centuries or more), and Islam (by perhaps five to ten centuries). On the other hand, Judaism, like the Vedic culture, has ancient origins but was, for the most part, a separate path of development. vAlthough this chronology is a very rough, the point here is that the sutras were pre-Christian and pre-Islamic, and offered a different path than ancient Judaism. As we discussed in earlier posts, many contemporary yoga practitioners are actively engaged in finding an accommodation between the yoga path and monotheistic religious traditions.
Note on Classical Exposition of the Spiritual Path
Many will notice the familiarity of the spiritual presentation (goal, illness, causes, path) to the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. They are often variously translated, but the basic format is a clear “medical” diagnosis with prescription for health:
- There is suffering
- There are causes of suffering
- There is an end to suffering
- There is a path
Thereafter the Buddhist dharma elucidates the Eight-fold Path. This path does not correspond is a direct way with the Eight Limbs of Yoga in Patanjali’s classic yoga, but there are similarities in the prescriptions for practice and personal conduct.
Note on the Meanings of Brahmacharya
Bryant emphasizes the absolutism of the yamas:
“One may take this or leave it, but Patanjali’s intent cannot be expressed much more clearly. The yamas are universal prescriptions — there are no exceptions … renegotiations of the yamas due to the exigencies of modern times and the Western landascape are emphatically not recognized by the classical Yoga tradition” (p. 251)
Be that as it may, what are modern yoga practitioners in the West to do? There are famous tales of corrupt yogis, or yogis whose path also involved fathering numerous children, or modern teachers famously being sued for sexual harassment. In Western practice of many traditions there are certainly anecdotes about behavior that caused harm to students and divided yoga communities.
As far back as the 1970’s yoga schools in the Iyengar tradition began articulating codes of conduct, and all teachers must observe behavioral codes designed to protect students and teachers, and avoid harm to the unity of yoga communities. These modern embodiments of the yamas — all the yamas, not just sexual behavior — are seen at least in part as a social necessity for the passing on of yoga and in maintaining the health of yoga communities. The moral absolutism of Patanjali’s sutras and sannyasi practice is softened, or at least augmented, by an explicit concern for social consequences. Most yoga traditions attempt to be self-policing, but they are now aided by sexual harassment legislation in Western countries.
Sanskritists explain that the word “brahmacharya” does not etymologically/literally mean “celibacy,” “chastity,” or some similar term related specifically to sex. It means something like “following the path of Brahman” (the supreme reality, God, or Self). Confusion often arises because the term has several other meanings.
One meaning is defined as the first in four phases (ashramas) of life:
brahmacharya: the first stage of life (about 25 years) when one is an unmarried student
grihastha: the stage of householder who has a family and pursues a living — in this stage of life having a family is indeed acceptable. However, as the texts often point out: “Householder (grihastha) yoga is hard yoga.”
vanaprastha: the phase of the “forest dweller” who begins a withdrawal from the world and family responsibilities, and turns toward a spiritual life through meditation and study
sannyasa: the stage of renunciation and austerities to achieve a higher stage of spiritual enlightenment.
The term brahmacharya is also related to behavior and is sometimes interpreted to mean chastity or celibacy for the unmarried, and fidelity for those who are married (e.g., in the phase of grihastha). This broader notion of brahmacharya is close to the Buddhist precept to avoid sexual behavior that is harmful to oneself or others. The Buddhist emphasis on “non-harming,” regardless of marital status, is a more modern compromise with the term.
Buddhist and yogic traditions are not strangers to variance in gender identity and sexual orientation, but the Sutras are silent on this matter (as are the traditional Buddhist texts). In other words, they do not address the modalities of gender and sexuality, but rather the effects of harming. Harmful sexual behavior is a violation of the yama of ahimsa or non-violence.
Of course, being human, various gurus and teachers have a wide variety of personal and spiritual orientations on sexual diversity, but the classic texts are, for the most part, silent on these matters because absolute adherence to the vow of brahmacharya precludes these activities.